Fabricationof nano-object array

ABSTRACT

This disclosure relates to a system and method for creating nano-object arrays. A nano-object array can be created by exposing troughs in a corrugated surface to nano-objects and depositing the nano-objects within or orienting the nano-objects with the troughs.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED PATENT APPLICATION

This is a continuation-in-part of a co-pending United States patentapplication having Ser. No. 10/683,527, a filing date of Oct. 7, 2003,and an attorney file number of 200309813, for FABRICATION OF NANOWIRESof Pavel Kornilovich et al. This co-pending United States patentapplication is commonly assigned herewith and is hereby incorporatedherein by reference for all that it discloses.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention relates to a system and method for fabricatingnano-object arrays.

BACKGROUND

Prior art thin-wire arrays are used in a large number of devices, andhave been found particularly suited for use in small or denselystructured computer devices, such as sensors, memory devices, and logicchips.

To address this need for thin-wire arrays, thin-wire arrays have beencreated using photolithography. As computer devices get smaller andsmaller, however, the wires of these arrays need to be thinner and moreclosely spaced. Photolithography has so far not proven to be an adequatemethod to create very thin and closely spaced arrays of wires.

To address this need for thinner arrays of wires, two ways of creatingthem have been used. One of these prior-art ways uses an etchedsuperlattice as a mold for imprint lithography. The other uses an etchedsuperlattice and physical vapor deposition to fabricate nanowire arrays.

Prior-art etched-superlattice imprint lithography is described in U.S.Pat. No. 6,407,443. This example of imprint lithography is typicallyassociated inconveniently with subsequent lift-off processing and mayultimately have limited process capability. It also uses anano-imprinting step, which has so far not been consistently andsuccessfully used in a production atmosphere.

Prior-art physical vapor deposition uses an atomic beam to directlydeposit material on a surface of an etched superlattice. This depositedmaterial is then physically transferred to a substrate. This method,however, may produce oddly shaped wires, which can create variousstructural and usage difficulties. Prior-art physical vapor depositionalso can require processing in an Ultra-High Vacuum (“UHV”), which canbe costly to use and would restrict the usage of materials that areincompatible with UHV processing.

There is, therefore, a need for a technique for manufacturing arrays ofthinner wires that is reliable, less expensive, more reproducible, andmore production-friendly than permitted by present-day techniques.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates a side, cross-sectional view of an exemplarysuperlattice.

FIG. 2 illustrates a side, cross-sectional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having a working surface.

FIG. 3 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplary superlatticehaving a working surface and thickness, depth, and length dimensions.

FIG. 4 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplary superlatticehaving a working surface and an electrical connection surface.

FIG. 5 shows a block diagram of an exemplary system that is capable ofimplementing methods for creating nanowire and nano-object arrays.

FIG. 6 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method for creating a nanowirearray using electrochemistry and physical transfer.

FIG. 7 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplary superlatticehaving a working surface and an electrical connection surface inelectrical communication with an electrical power sink.

FIG. 8 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplary superlatticehaving a working surface having a low-adhesion layer and an electricalconnection surface in electrical communication with an electrical powersink.

FIG. 9 illustrates a side, cross-sectional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having alternating layers of materials and with one set ofthe alternating layers being altered at a working surface.

FIG. 10 illustrates a side, cross-sectional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having alternating layers of materials and with thematerials being altered at a working surface.

FIG. 11 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having a corrugated working surface and an electricalconnection surface in electrical communication with an electrical powersink.

FIG. 12 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having a working surface, the working surface having alow-adhesion layer and material present on alternating layers of theworking surface, and an electrical connection surface in electricalcommunication with an electrical power sink.

FIG. 13 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having a corrugated working surface, the working surfacehaving material present on alternating layers of the working surface,and an electrical connection surface in electrical communication with anelectrical power sink.

FIG. 14 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplarysuperlattice and an exemplary array substrate, the superlattice havingmaterial on its working surface.

FIG. 15 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplary arraysubstrate with wires of material on one of the array substrate'ssurfaces.

FIG. 16 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method for creating a nanowirearray using ion transfer.

FIG. 17 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having a working surface, the working surface havingalternating layers being eroded, and an electrical connection surfacebeing in electrical communication with an electrical power sink.

FIG. 18 illustrates a side, cross-sectional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having alternating layers of materials that are corrugatedalong a working surface, an electrical connection surface being inelectrical communication with an electrical power sink, and an exemplaryconductive receiving substrate being in electrical communication with anelectrical power source and having one material from the working surfaceof the superlattice being deposited on a surface of the conductivereceiving substrate.

FIG. 19 illustrates a side, cross-sectional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having alternating layers of materials that are corrugatedalong a working surface with one of the alternating layers includingmultiple materials, an electrical connection surface being in electricalcommunication with an electrical power sink, and an exemplary conductivereceiving substrate being in electrical communication with an electricalpower source and having materials from the working surface of thesuperlattice being deposited on a surface of the conductive receivingsubstrate.

FIG. 20 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method for creating anano-object array.

FIG. 21 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having a corrugated surface with troughs and ridges, anelectrical connection surface in electrical communication with anelectrical power sink, and thickness, depth, and length dimensions.

FIG. 22 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having a corrugated surface with troughs and ridges, anelectrical connection surface being in electrical communication with anelectrical power sink, and an exemplary bath in electrical connectionwith an electrical power source and containing exemplary ionizednano-objects.

FIG. 23 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplary directedflow bath having a bath platform holding an exemplary superlattice, ashelf connected to an electrical power source, and having thickness,depth, and length dimensions.

FIG. 24 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having a corrugated surface with troughs in the surfacecontaining nano-objects making up an exemplary array, and an electricalconnection surface in electrical communication with an electrical powersink.

FIG. 25 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having a corrugated surface with troughs in the surfacecontaining nano-objects making up an exemplary array and un-arrayednano-objects not making up the exemplary array.

FIG. 26 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplarysuperlattice having an exemplary array of nano-objects and an exemplaryarray substrate.

FIG. 27 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplary arraysubstrate with an exemplary array of nano-objects on one of the arraysubstrate's surfaces and thickness, depth, and length dimensions.

FIG. 28 illustrates a three-dimensional view of an exemplary arraysubstrate with an exemplary cross-hatch array of nano-objects and/ornano-wires on one of the array substrate's surfaces.

The same numbers are used throughout the disclosure and figures toreference like components and features.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following disclosure describes various embodiments of a system andmethod for fabricating nanowire and nano-object arrays. The describedsystem and method can be used to fabricate arrays of wires or objectswith a thickness and spacing in a nano, micro, and meso scale and incombinations of these scales. The described system and method can beused to fabricate arrays of wires or objects directly on the side of asuperlattice. Such arrays can be used to fabricate secondary arrays ofwires on a different substrate surface. Such secondary arrays can beused to fabricate further arrays of different wires or objects on thesame substrate surface. This nesting of capabilities for the processingof arrays provides great flexibility in material selection, processdesign, and the engineering of structures and devices.

The disclosed system and method is capable of creating an array ofclosely spaced, very thin wires or objects. This type of array iscapable of being used in current and future devices, allowing thesedevices to function better, more quickly, and be built on a smallerscale.

The disclosed system and method offer substantial benefits over manyprior-art solutions. These benefits can include precise control of thedimensions of an array, such as a length, thickness, and spacing ofwires or objects, as well as a number of wires or objects. The disclosedsystem can also provide smoother, more usable cross-sections of thewires than some prior-art solutions. Further, the cost of producingnanowire and nano-object arrays can be reduced with this system andmethod, including by using a superlattice multiple times and not needingto use nano-imprinting, lift-off processes, or UHV, each of which can becostly. Also, nanowire and nano-object arrays having wires or objectsmade of many different types of materials can also be created using thedescribed system and method—a potentially substantial benefit.

An Exemplary Superlattice

FIGS. 1 through 4 set forth a superlattice usable in various processesdiscussed below for creating a nanowire or nano-object array. Thissuperlattice is one example of a structure usable in the below-discussedprocesses. Other superlattices, surfaces, and structures can be used;this exemplary superlattice is not intended to be limiting on the scopeof the below processes, but instead is intended to aid the reader inunderstanding the below-described processes.

FIG. 1 sets forth an exemplary superlattice 100, here shown at a side,cross-sectional view. The superlattice 100 includes at least two or moredifferent layered materials, here first material layers 102 and secondmaterial layers 104. Either of these material layers can be layered on asubstrate 106, or otherwise. Construction of the superlattice 100 shownin FIG. 1 can be performed in various ways, such as with chemical vapordeposition, sputtering and other methods of physical vapor deposition,atomic layer deposition, electroplating, and the like.

The layered materials alternate, such as shown in FIG. 1. The thicknessof each of the layers 102 and 104 affects the process of creating aspacing (or “pitch”) between wires or objects and a thickness of thewires (and, in some cases the objects) themselves, as will be set forthin greater detail below. Thus, the thickness and spacing of the layers102 and 104 affect the properties of an array of wires or objectsfabricated using the superlattice 100.

Both of the first material layers 102 and the second material layers 104can be of various thicknesses, including from nanometer in scale tomicrometer and thicker in scale. The layers 102 and 104, for instance,can be created with a thickness of less than 10 nanometers (even as lowas 0.7 nanometers), 10-15 nanometers, 15-20 nanometers, and 20 to 50nanometers or more, or combinations thereof. The smallest layerthicknesses are used to produce wire or object arrays of the highestdensity and wires or objects that exhibit extreme size-dependentproperties such as quantum effects. The larger layer thicknesses providefor classical non-quantum properties, easier manufacturability, greaterelectrical conductance, more surface area, and less dense arrays.

The first material layers 102 can be made of various types of materials,including conductive materials and non-conductive materials. Ofconductive materials, the first material layers 102 can include one ormore metals such as platinum, beryllium, aluminum, palladium, tantalum,nickel, gold; metallic alloys; a ceramic such as indium tin oxide,vanadium oxide, or yttrium barium copper oxide; an electricallysemiconductive material such as silicon, diamond, germanium, galliumarsenide, cadmium telluride, zinc oxide, silicon carbide, tin oxide,indium tin oxide; and/or other elemental, binary, and multi-componentmaterials, for instance. Of the non-conductive materials, the firstmaterial layers 102 can include aluminum oxide, various other oxides,and other insulating materials that can be deposited in thin layers. Thechoice of material combination will be application-specific, and theprocess can be made to work with most any solid material that can bedeposited as thin layers, including “soft” materials like polymers.

Likewise, the second material layers 104 can be made of various types ofmaterials, including conductive materials and non-conductive materials,such as those described for the first material layers 102, above. Of thenon-conductive materials, the second material layers 104 can includealuminum oxide, various other oxides, and other insulating materialsthat can be deposited in thin layers. Also the first material layers 102and the second material layers 104 can be single-crystalline and/or inepitaxial relationship. Epitaxial refers to the perfect or near-perfectlattice registry of one material to another material upon which it isdeposited.

Both the first material layers 102 and the second material layers 104can be conductive, or one of them can be conductive and the otherinsulative. In cases where both of the layers 102 and 104 areconductive, a surface that exposes the layers can be treated such thatone exposed surface of either the first material layers 102 or thesecond material layers 104 is non-conductive, etched, or removed. Theseprocesses and an example of the surface will be described in greaterdetail below.

Both of the first material layers 102 and the second material layers 104can include more than one material. The first material layers 102 can,for instance, include layers some of which include gold, some of whichinclude tantalum, some of which include nickel, and the like.

The superlattice 100 and the first material layers 102 and the secondmaterial layers 104 have a thickness, a length, and a depth. The firstand second material layers 102 and 104 can have a length that isnanometer in scale up to centimeter in scale. Depending on the eventualapplication for the array, the wires or objects may need to be veryshort (nanometer scale in length) or quite long (centimeter scale inlength). As will be discussed in greater detail below, the eventuallength of the wires or objects in the array can be related to the lengthof the superlattice 100 and its first material layers 102 and/or itssecond material layers 104.

FIG. 2 sets forth an example of the superlattice 100, here shown at aside, cross-sectional view, and having a working surface 202. Here thesuperlattice 100 is altered to create the working surface 202. Thisworking surface 202 is substantially level (planar) at some portion,this level portion being usable to aid in creating the wires of thenanowire array (discussed below). The working surface 202 can be createdin various ways, including by cutting and polishing the superlattice100.

The working surface 202 can be substantially parallel to a thickness ofthe first material layers 102 and the second material layers 104 orotherwise. If the working surface 202 is not substantially parallel tothe material layers' 102 and 104 thickness, greater area of the materiallayers 102 and 104 will be exposed. With a greater area of the materiallayers 102 and 104 exposed, wires created with the working surface 202can be created thicker than if the working surface 202 is substantiallyparallel to the thickness of the first and second material layers 102and 104. If the working surface 202 is substantially parallel with thethickness of the material layers, the working surface 202 is usable toaid in creating wires, orienting nano-objects, and creating spacesbetween wires or objects in the array that are about the same as thethickness of the first and second material layers 102 and 104.

FIG. 3 sets forth a three-dimensional view of an example of thesuperlattice 100 with the working surface 202. Here the working surface202 is shown exposing multiple areas, or edges, of the first and secondmaterial layers 102 and 104. These edges are referenced as firstmaterial edges 302 and second material edges 304. These exposed edges302 and 304 can be used to aid in creating wires or collecting andorienting nano-objects of the array, as will be discussed in greaterdetail below.

FIG. 4 sets forth a three-dimensional view of an example of thesuperlattice 100 with an example of the working surface 202 and anexemplary electrical connection surface 402. Here the superlattice 100is altered to create the electrical connection surface 402. Theelectrical connection surface 402 does not need to be substantiallylevel at some portion, though connection to an electrical power sink canbe easier if it is substantially level or planar. The electricalconnection surface 402 can be created in various ways, including bycutting and polishing the superlattice 100.

Exemplary Platform for Creating Nanowire and Nano-Object Arrays

FIG. 5 illustrates one embodiment of a platform 500 usable to performmethods set forth below for creating nanowire and nano-object arrays.The platform 500 includes a computer/controller 502 and a processportion 504.

The computer/controller 502 includes a central processing unit (CPU)506, a memory 508, input/output (I/O) circuits 510, and support circuits512. The CPU 506 is a general purpose computer which, when programmed byexecuting software contained in memory 508 (not shown), becomes adirected-purpose computer for controlling the hardware components of theprocessing portion 504. The memory 508 may include read-only memory,random-access memory, removable storage, a hard disk drive, or any formof digital memory device. The I/O circuits 510 comprise well-knowndisplays for the output of information and a keyboard, a mouse, a trackball, or an input of information that can allow for programming of thecomputer/controller 502 to determine the processes performed by theprocess portion 504 (including the associated robot action included inthe process portion 504). The support circuits 512 may be known in theart and include circuits such as cache, clocks, power supplies, and thelike.

The memory 508 contains control software that, when executed by the CPU506, enables the computer/controller 502 to digitally control thevarious components of the process portion 504. A detailed description ofthe process that is implemented by the control software is describedwith respect to FIGS. 6, 16, and 20.

In another embodiment, the computer/controller 502 can be analog. Forinstance, application-specific integrated circuits capable ofcontrolling processes such as those that occur within the processportion 504 can be used.

The process portion 504 may include a variety of process chambers 514between which the substrate 106 and/or the superlattice 100 istranslated, often using a robot mechanism 516. The particulars of theprocessing varies with different methods described below.

Exemplary Methods for Creating Nanowire Arrays

FIG. 6 shows an exemplary flow diagram of a process 600 forelectrochemically creating a nanowire array. This and the followingprocesses are illustrated as a series of blocks representing operationsor acts performed by the platform 500. These processes may beimplemented, however, in any suitable robotics, persons, hardware,software, firmware, or combination thereof. In the case of software andfirmware, they represent sets of operations implemented ascomputer-executable instructions stored in memory and executable by oneor more processors.

At block 602 the superlattice 100 is provided.

At block 604, the superlattice 100 is attached or otherwise put inelectrical communication with an electrical power source or anelectrical ground (sink).

FIG. 7 sets forth a three-dimensional view of an example of thesuperlattice 100 with examples of the working surface 202 and theelectrical connection surface 402, the electrical connection surface 402being in electrical communication with an electrical power sink 702.

With the electrical connection surface 402 being put in communicationwith the electrical power sink 702, there can be a voltage differencebetween the first and second material layers 102 and 104 at the workingsurface 202 and ions, conductive substrates, and other devices (not yetshown). This voltage difference can be used to transfer ions to or fromthe working surface 202 to create wires for a nanowire array or attractobjects to build a nano-object array. How this voltage difference can beused to facilitate creation of an array will be discussed in greaterdetail below.

If material(s) of the first material layers 102 or the second materiallayers 104 are non-conductors, and thus non-conductive from the workingsurface 202 to the electrical connection surface 402, the electricalconnection surface 402 is constructed such that each layer of the othermaterial layer (which is/are conductors) connects with the electricalpower sink 702. In this case, the electrical connection surface 402 isprepared such that each conductive layer of the conductive materiallayer is in electrical communication with the electrical power sink 702.This can be accomplished by cutting and polishing the electricalconnection surface 402 and then placing a conductive connection material704 in contact with each of the conductive layers at the electricalconnection surface 402. It can be accomplished in other ways as well,with the goal being that each layer of the conductive material layer bein communication with an electrical power sink if that layer is intendedto be used to aid in creating a wire or orienting a nano-object for thearray.

If the materials of both the first and second material layers 102 and104 are conductors, the electrical connection surface 402 can beprepared without the conductive connection material 704. In this case,the electrical power sink 702 can be connected directly to one or moreof the layers, or to a smaller amount of material that is connecteddirectly to one or more of the layers.

At block 606, if the materials in both of the first material layers 102and the second material layers 104 are conductive, the platform 500proceeds along the “No” path to block 608. If yes, the platform 500proceeds along the “Yes” path to block 610.

At block 608, the platform 500 applies a low-adhesion layer to theworking surface 202. This low-adhesion layer can be nano-scale in depth,or even less than one nanometer in depth. The low-adhesion layer shouldbe thin enough and have properties such that it does not substantiallyinterfere with a conductive property of the first or second materialedges 302 or 304 that is conductive.

FIG. 8 sets forth a three-dimensional view of an example of thesuperlattice 100 with examples of the working surface 202, theelectrical connection surface 402, the electrical power sink 702, and anexemplary low-adhesion layer 802. In some implementations of the systemand method, the low-adhesion layer 802 is added to the superlattice's100 working surface 202. This low-adhesion layer 802 acts to allow wiresthat are created on the working surface 202 to more easily be removedfrom the working surface 202. The removal of these wires can be madeeasier by addition of the low-adhesion layer 802 by lowering adhesionbetween these wires (not shown in FIG. 8) and the working surface 202.

The low-adhesion layer 802 can be of varying adhesive force, from verylow to moderately high adhesion. Some of the adhesion layer 802 can comeoff with the wires when the wires are removed from the working surface202, or substantially all of it can remain with the working surface 202.The low adhesion layer 802 helps to reduce incidence of wires stickingto the working surface 202, or being broken or otherwise damaged onremoval by too high an adhesion force between the wires and the workingsurface 202. It can have varying strength of adhesion, such as anadhesion strength to eventual wires created on the working surface 202that is of a strength lower than the strength of an eventual substrateto which the wires are transferred. To reduce the amount of thelow-adhesion layer sticking to the wires, the low-adhesion layer canadhere to the working surface 202 with greater force than to the wires.

In other implementations, the low-adhesion layer 802 is not used. Theseimplementations will be discussed in greater detail below.

At block 610, the platform 500 processes the working surface 202 of thesuperlattice 100. This process can include causing exposed edges of thefirst material layers 102 or the second material layers 104 to benon-conductive. It can also include preferentially exposing edges of oneof the first or second material layers 102 and 104.

In the case of causing certain exposed edges to be non-conductive, theplatform 500 can insulate certain layers of the first and/or secondmaterial layers 102 and 104. The platform can, for instance, oxidize ornitridize exposed edges of certain layers to insulate them.

In one implementation, for instance, the edges of the second materiallayers 104 are insulated at block 610 while the first material layers102 are not. This can be performed by oxidizing the second materialedges 304 (see FIG. 3). In one implementation, the platform 500 exposesthe working surface 202, and thus the first material edges 302 and thesecond material edges 304, to an oxygen atmosphere. In thisimplementation, the first material edges 302 do not oxidize as quicklyas the second material layers 304. Because of this, the second materiallayers 304 can be oxidized sufficiently to become non-conductive priorto the first material edges 302 becoming non-conductive.

In another implementation, edges of one of the first and second materiallayers 102 and 104 are insulated through nitridation. In thisimplementation, the platform 500 exposes the working surface 202 (alongwith the first and second edges 302 and 304) to a nitrogen atmosphereunder proper conditions of pressure, temperature, plasma, and/orcatalyst, etc. Here, one of the first and second material edges 302 and304 are nitrided sufficiently to be non-conductive at the workingsurface 202. The material edge that is to remain conductive has anitridation rate that is lower than the material edge to be madenon-conductive.

FIG. 9 sets forth a side, cross-sectional view of examples of thesuperlattice 100 and the working surface 202 after the second materialedges 304 have been altered. In this depiction, the material of thesecond material layers 104 is conductive, but has been treated such thatit is no longer conductive at the working surface 202. As describedabove, the second material edges 304 (or the first material edges 302,depending on the implementation), can be made non-conductive by beingsubjected to a nitrogen or oxygen atmosphere.

In one implementation, the material of the second material layers 104 isaluminum and the material of the first material layers 102 is gold. Withthese being the two materials, subjecting the working surface 202 to anoxygen atmosphere will cause the first material edges 302 to besubstantially unchanged, while the second material edges 304 will changefrom aluminum (a conductor, shown at reference 104) to aluminum oxide (anon-conductor, shown at reference 902). After a sufficient depth ofchange from aluminum to aluminum oxide has been reached, the secondmaterial edges 304 will be effectively non-conductive.

In some cases, however, a certain small amount of alteration to thefirst material edges 302 is desired. In this implementation, a smallamount of alteration to the first material edges 302 can cause wirescreated on the first material edges 302 to not adhere as strongly as ifthere was no alteration.

FIG. 10 sets forth a side, cross-sectional view of examples of thesuperlattice 100 and the working surface 202 after the first and secondmaterial edges 302 and 304 have been altered. In this depiction, thematerial of the second material layers 104 is conductive, but has beentreated such that it is no longer conductive at the working surface 202.The material of the first material layers 102 is also conductive, andhas been treated at the working surface 202, but not enough to benon-conductive.

In one implementation, the material of the second material layers 104 isaluminum and the material of the first material layers 102 is tantalum.With these being the two materials, subjecting the working surface 202to an oxygen atmosphere will cause the first material edges 302 to bechanged to a small depth (compared to the depth of the second materialedges 304), while the second material edges 304 will change to acomparatively large depth. The aluminum will change to aluminum oxide(shown at the reference 902 of FIG. 10). The tantalum will change totantalum oxide (a non-conductor, shown at reference 1002). After asufficient depth of change from aluminum to aluminum oxide has beenreached, the second material edges 304 will be effectivelynon-conductive. The first material edges 302 can remain conductive butwith desirable properties, such as lower adherence to one or morematerials used to create wires for the nanowire array. The firstmaterial edges here can also be chemically etched in a solution thatdoes not substantially etch the first material edges.

Also as part of block 610, the platform 500 can preferentially erodeedges of one of the first or second material layers 102 and 104. Thispreferential erosion can offset the first or second material layers 102or 104 from the working surface 202. In one implementation,preferentially eroding edges includes etching away whichever of thefirst or second material layers 102 and 104 is a conductor. Etching theconductive material (in this example, assume that the first materiallayers 102 are conductive and the second material layers 104 arenon-conductive) can be performed to a certain depth. This depth canaffect the eventual depth (or height) of wires of the nanowire array.This depth can also affect collection of nano-objects.

FIG. 11 sets forth a three-dimensional view of examples of thesuperlattice 100 and the working surface 202 after the first materialedges 302 have been eroded. In this depiction, the material of the firstmaterial layers 102 is conductive, but has been etched away to offsetthe first material edges 302 from the working surface 202. As shown inthe working surface 202 of FIG. 11, this offsetting can produce furrows(or “troughs”). By so doing, the second material edges 304 form ridgesrelative to the troughs in the first material edges 302. As is apparentfrom FIG. 11, this offsetting of the second material layers 302 causesthe working surface 202 to be corrugated. This corrugation can alsoappear, when viewed parallel to the length, to have a stepped-square, asaw-tooth, or a sine-wave appearance.

To preferentially etch, or erode, one material more than the other, thematerial of the first or second material layer 102 or 104 that is to beetched has a higher etch rate with respect to the etchant used.

This furrow can be useful in creating wires that are about the depth ofthe furrows. The furrows also have other benefits, such as protectingthe wires from damage and creating a desirable wire cross-section. Thiscross section can be rounded on one side and approximately flat onanother side. As this other side is later applied to a substrate, thisflatness can be an advantage in fixing the wires to the substrate.

In one implementation, the corrugated working surface 202 of FIG. 11 istreated with a low-adhesion layer (not shown).

At block 612, in one implementation the platform 500 proceeds along the“Insulate Only” path to block 608 if part of the working surface 202 wasinsulated and not etched. If it was insulated and etched or otherwisepreferentially exposed, the platform 500 proceeds along the “Etch andInsulate” path to block 614. The platform 500 can, however, in someimplementations, proceed to block 608 after etching and insulating,prior to proceeding to block 614, to apply a low-adhesion layer to theetched and insulated working surface 202.

At block 614 the platform 500 exposes edges of the conductive materiallayers to ions. As part of this block 614, the platform 500 exposes theworking surface 202 to ions. Those edges (either the first materialedges 302 or the second material edges 304) that are conductive at theworking surface 202 can attract ions. Over a period of time, collectionof ions on a conductive edge will build a wire.

To attract the ions to the conductive edges, the conductive edges are ata different electrical potential or charge than the ions. This can beaccomplished in various ways, including by putting the edges inelectrical communication with the electrical power sink 702. In theembodiment set forth above, the electrical connection surface 402 is putin electrical communication with the electrical power sink 702. In thisexample, the communication is established between the electricalconnection surface 402 and the working surface 202, by one or both ofthe first and second material layers 102 and 104 being conductive. Ifboth layers are conductive except that one is not conductive at theworking surface 202, these conductive layers provide electricalcommunication to the edges that are conductive at the working surface,even though not every layer is conductive at the working surface. By sodoing, the first material edges 302 or the second material edges 304(whichever is conductive at the working surface 202), can attract theions to build wires for the nanowire array.

In one implementation, the platform 500 exposes the working surface 202to ions by placing the working surface 202 in an ion bath. The ions inthe bath can be gold, tantalum, aluminum, or nickel ions, to name a few.The material of the first material edges 302 can also be gold, tantalum,aluminum, or nickel ions, to name a few.

In another implementation, the platform 500 places the working surface202 in an ion bath of nickel ions, which have a positive charge. In thisimplementation, the first material edges 302 are made up of tantalum andthe second material edges 304 are made up of aluminum oxide. Thematerial of the second material layers 104 is aluminum, but the secondmaterial edges 304 have been oxidized. In this example, wires having anano-scale depth that are made of nickel will form at the first materialedges 302 if the first material edges 302 are at a sufficiently negativepotential compared with the nickel ions. Continuing this example, thefirst material edges 302 are at an electric potential that is lower thanthat of the nickel ions. This lower electric potential provided byelectrical communication from the first material edges 302 through thefirst material layers 102 and the electrical connection surface 402 tothe electrical power sink 702. Also in this example, the bath of nickelions (not shown) is connected to an electrical power source (not shown),that keeps and/or causes them to remain positively charged.

At block 616, the platform 500 electrochemically deposits ions on theedges of the conductive layers. As shown above, the first or secondmaterial edges 302 or 304 that are conductive at the working surface 202will attract ions if the edges are at an appropriate electricalpotential compared to the ions. The platform 500 continues to depositions on the edges until wires of an appropriate thickness and depth arecreated. This thickness can be nanometer in scale or more. In oneimplementation, this thickness is about the same as the depth of thewires. In another implementation, this thickness is less than the depthof the wires, giving the wires a smaller thickness than depth. In stillanother implementation, this thickness is greater than the depth of thewires.

FIGS. 12 and 13 show wires built up on an example of the working surface202.

Specifically, FIG. 12 sets forth a three-dimensional view of an exampleof the superlattice 100 with examples of the working surface 202, theelectrical connection surface 402, the electrical power sink 702, andthe low-adhesion layer 802, with exemplary wires 1202 on the workingsurface 202. Here the wires 1202 are built over the conductive edges(here the first material edges 302) and on top of the low-adhesion layer802.

Specifically, FIG. 13 sets forth a three-dimensional view of an exampleof the superlattice 100 with examples of the working surface 202 havinga corrugated cross-section, the electrical connection surface 402, theelectrical power sink 702, and the wires 1202. Here the wires 1202 arebuilt up within the corrugations caused by eroding the first materiallayers 102 at the working surface 202.

In yet another implementation of block 616, the platform 500 places theworking surface 202 in a bath with other charged objects, which includebut are not limited to: ionized inorganic molecules, ionized organicmolecules, ionized biological molecules, ionized polymers, chargedmetal, semiconductor or insulating nanoparticles, metal, dielectric, orsemiconductor nano-tubes, and chemical clusters or complexes of theabove. In this implementation, the electric field induced by the workingsurface 202 will result in electrophoretic deposition of the objects onthe conductive edges of the working surface 202. This method makes itpossible to form semiconductor, ceramic, organic, polymeric and othertypes of nanowires.

In still another implementation of block 616, the electric fieldgenerated by the working surface 202 induces a chemical reaction betweendissolved chemicals and water (in a bath in which the working surface202 is placed), on the conductive edges of the working surface 202. Thisresults in electrolytic deposition of the reaction products on theconductive edges, forming nanowires.

At block 618, the platform 500 provides an array substrate. This arraysubstrate acts to hold the wires formed on the working surface 202.

FIG. 14 sets forth examples of the superlattice 100, the working surface202, the low-adhesion layer 802, the wires 1202, and an exemplary arraysubstrate 1400. The array substrate 1400 includes a high-adhesion layer1402. This high-adhesion layer 1402 facilitates transfer of the wires1202 from the superlattice 100 to the array substrate 1400. Thehigh-adhesion layer 1402 acts with an adhesion force greater than theadhesion force between the wires 1202 and the working surface 202. Ifthere is a low-adhesion layer 802 between the wires 1202 and the workingsurface 202, the high-adhesion layer 1402 may be of an adhesion forcethat is only moderate or moderately low, but that is greater than theadhesion force of the low-adhesion layer 802 on the wires 1202.

At block 620, the platform 500 contacts the wires 1202 to the arraysubstrate 1400. By so doing, the wires 1202 are transferred from thesuperlattice 100 to the array substrate 1400.

FIG. 14 shows the array substrate 1400 and the superlattice 100 prior tobeing placed in physical contact. After the platform 500 touches thewires 1202 to the high-adhesion layer 1402 of the array substrate 1400,the wires 1202 are transferred to the array substrate 1400.

At block 622, the platform 500 removes the superlattice 100 from thearray substrate 1400, leaving the wires 1202 on the array substrate1400.

FIG. 15 sets forth an example of the array substrate 1400 and the wires1202 after the wires 1202 are transferred. Here the array substrate 1400includes an exemplary array 1502 of the wires 1202.

FIG. 16 shows an exemplary flow diagram of a process 1600 forelectrochemically creating a nanowire array. This process 1600 setsforth an exemplary method for creating a nanowire array, here usingelectrochemical dissolution and electroplating to transfer material fromthe superlattice 100 to a substrate.

In another implementation (not shown), material is transferred from thesubstrate to the superlattice. In this other implementation, thesubstrate has a thin conductive film and the superlattice is usedelectrochemically to etch the substrate's thin conductive film into anarray of nanowires. Thus, material from the substrate's thin conductivefilm that remains after the etching is a nanowire array.

At block 1602, the platform 500 provides the superlattice 100. This canbe performed with one of the exemplary superlattices 100 set forthabove. In one implementation, the platform 500 provides the superlattice100 shown in FIG. 4, which has the working surface 202 and theelectrical connection surface 402.

At block 1604, the electrical power sink 702 is attached to theelectrical connection surface 402. The electrical power sink 702 can bea source or ground/sink.

At block 1606, the platform 500 erodes one of the first or secondmaterial layers 102 or 104 at the working surface 202. This erosion canbe performed by etching or in other manners, similar to as set forth inthe above description concerning exposing, erosion, and/or etching.

In one implementation, the platform 500 etches the second materiallayers 104 at the working surface 202. This creates a corrugated workingsurface 202, with the first material edges 302 protruding beyond that ofthe second material layers 304.

FIG. 17 sets forth a three-dimensional view of examples of thesuperlattice 100 and the working surface 202 after the second materialedges 304 have been eroded. In this depiction, the material of the firstmaterial layers 102 is conductive, but has been exposed beyond that ofthe second material layers 104 by the second material layers 104 beingetched away to produce furrows in the second material layers 104. Thispreferentially exposes the conductive material of the first materiallayers 102 at the working surface 202. As is apparent from FIG. 17, thisetching causes the working surface 202 to be corrugated and the firstmaterial edges 302 to extend beyond the second material edges 304.

At block 1608 the platform provides a conductive receiving substrate.This conductive receiving substrate is usable to transfer material fromlayers of the first material layers 102 or the second material layers104. Material can be transferred in small quantities, but sufficient tocreate nano-scale wires of sufficient depth from the edges of the firstand/or second material edges 302 and 304.

At block 1610, the platform 500 dissolves conductive material from oneor more edges of the material layers to deposit the conductive materialon the conductive receiving substrate. This can be performed in variousmanners, including by electrochemical deposition from exposed edges ofthe layers to the conductive receiving substrate.

In one implementation, shown in part in FIG. 18, material from the firstmaterial edges 302 is transferred to create wires on the conductivereceiving substrate. To facilitate this transfer of material, the firstmaterial edges 302 and the conductive receiving substrate are atdifferent electric potentials.

FIG. 18 sets forth a side, cross-sectional view of examples of thesuperlattice 100, the working surface 202, the electrical connectionsurface 402, and the electrical power sink 702, with working surface 202having the first material edges 302 extending beyond the second materialedges 304. FIG. 18 also sets forth an exemplary conductive receivingsubstrate 1802 in electrical communication with an electrical powersource 1804. In this implementation, the conductive receiving substrate1802 includes an insulating layer 1806 on which the wires 1202 arebuilt.

The platform 500 can facilitate transfer of material from the firstmaterial edges 302 to the conductive receiving substrate 1802 by placingthe exposed edges (here the first material edges 302) very close to theconductive receiving substrate 1802. In one implementation, the platform500 places these within nanometers of each other. In another, withintens of nanometers of each other. The proximity affects the fineness ofthe deposited lines.

Also to facilitate transfer of material, the platform 500 can place theconductive receiving substrate 1802 and the first material edges 302within an electrolyte capable of carrying ions of materials present atthe first material edges 302.

In the ongoing example set forth in part in FIG. 18, the platform 500places the first material edges 302 and the conductive receivingsubstrate 1802 within an electrolyte capable of dissolving the materialsat the first material edges 302. In one example, the material in thefirst material edges 302 is nickel. In this example, the nickel isdissolved by the electrolyte to become nickel ions. These nickel ionsare charged particles and are attracted to the conductive receivingsubstrate 1802. The nickel ions then, over time, build up on the layer1806 of the conductive receiving substrate 1802, forming the wires 1202of nickel. After a desired thickness and depth of the wires 1202 isachieved, the platform 500 removes the conductive receiving substrate1802 from the working surface 202 of the superlattice 100.

The materials in the exposed first material edges 302 can includemultiple materials. In one implementation, illustrated in part in FIG.19, the first material edges 302 include four different materials.

FIG. 19 sets forth a side, cross-sectional view of examples of thesuperlattice 100, the working surface 202, the electrical connectionsurface 402, and the electrical power sink 702, and working surface 202having the first material edges 302 extending beyond the second materialedges 304 and including multiple materials. FIG. 19 also sets forth anexample of the conductive receiving substrate 1802 in electricalcommunication with the electrical power source 1804. In thisimplementation, the conductive receiving substrate 1802 includes theinsulating layer 1804 on which the wires 1202 are built.

In this implementation, the platform 500 places the first material edges302 within an electrolyte capable of dissolving each of the fourmaterials. These materials can include, for example, alternating layersof the first material layers 102 of tantalum, nickel, aluminum, andgold. The platform 500 then proceeds as above.

If, however, a particular spacing is needed, an electrolyte incapable ofsufficiently dissolving one or more of the four materials can be used,thereby creating wires in an array that have larger spaces betweencertain wires.

Nanowire arrays fabricated with the methods described herein can also beused for further processing and fabrication of other types of nanowires.In one implementation, nanowires are fabricated on top of a thin metalor semiconductor film. Then these nanowires are used as a hard mask toetch away the material of the film, thereby creating another set ofnanowires made of the material of the film.

Exemplary Methods for Creating a Nano-Object Array

FIG. 20 shows an exemplary flow diagram for a process 2000 for creatinga nano-object array. Nano-objects can function as conductors,insulators, semiconductors, and structural bodies, making the arrayuseful in many different applications.

Nano-objects are three-dimensional, substantially straight physicalobjects with two dimensions between 0.7 and 100 nanometers and a thirddimension between 100 nanometers and ten centimeters. Thus, nano-objectsare long, thin objects. Nano-objects can include many differentmaterials and structural arrangements of materials.

At block 2002 the platform 500 provides a corrugated surface. Thiscorrugated surface includes troughs and ridges making up the corrugationof the surface. The troughs and ridges can be of varying thicknesses,with the troughs' thickness being nanometer in scale (between 0.7 andone hundred nanometers) and the ridges being from nanometer tomeso-meter or macro-meter in scale. The length of the troughs and ridgescan be from about 100 nanometers to centimeter in scale, with the lengthdimension being substantially larger than the thickness dimension.

Various implementations of the superlattice 100 will be used to aid inthe discussion of the process described below. These implementations ofthe superlattice 100 are examples of a structure having a corrugatesurface that is usable in the below-discussed process. Other structures,surfaces, and superlattices can be used; these exemplary corrugatedsurfaces and superlattices are not intended to be limiting on the scopeof the below-described process, but instead are intended to aid thereader in understanding this process.

In one implementation of the block 2002, the corrugated surface providedincludes any example of the superlattice 100 having corrugations andcreated or mentioned as part of the process 600. Thus, the block 2002can include implementations of the blocks 602 to 612 of the process 600that results in a corrugated surface.

FIG. 21 sets forth a three-dimensional view of an example of thesuperlattice 100 with a corrugated example of the working surface 202.This example of the superlattice 100 has the electrical connectionsurface 402, the electrical connection surface 402 being in electricalcommunication with the electrical power sink 702.

Also in this exemplary superlattice 100, the material of the firstmaterial layers 102 is conductive, but is offset from the workingsurface 202 to produce troughs 2102 in the first material layers 102.This exposes the second material layers 104 as ridges 2104 in theworking surface 202. These troughs 2102 will be used by the platform 500to orient and/or collect nano-objects, described below.

The corrugated working surface 202 shown in FIG. 21 can include asemi-circular cross-section for the troughs 2102 (shown) and plateaucross-sections for the ridges 2104 (shown), but can also includecross-sections that appear, when viewed parallel to the length, to havea stepped-square, a saw-tooth, a sine-wave, or a shallow-notchappearance.

In one implementation, the troughs 2102 are an offset example of thefirst material edges 302 and the ridges 2104 are a corresponding exampleof the second material edges 304.

At block 2004, the platform 500 provides nano-objects. Thesenano-objects can be made up of many different kinds of materials, suchas inorganic molecules, organic molecules, biological molecules, metal,semiconductor, or insulating nano-particles. They can also have variouskinds of shapes and structures. They can include, for instance, single-and multi-wall carbon nanotubes of various chiralities; boron-nitridenanotubes; molybdenum disulfide nano-tubes; bundles and ropes ofnanotubes; solid or hollow nanowires made of metals, semiconductors,conductive oxides, conductive polymers, or other conductive materials;insulating nano-rods; and conductive or insulating nano-needles.

These nano-objects have a length, a thickness, and a depth but aresubstantially longer than they are thick or deep.

In one implementation, the thickness and depth of the nano-objects isless than the thickness of the troughs 2102 so that the nano-objects canbe collected within the troughs 2102.

These nano-objects can be substantially straight or less straight butflexible enough to conform to the troughs 2102.

In one implementation, the nano-objects are nano-tube complexes. Thesecomplexes are moderately straight (have some curves), flexible, and havea hollow cross-section. The nano-tubes can comprise a polymer, includingthose with carbon, such as polyvinyl pyrrolidone and polystyrenesulfonate, or otherwise. The nano-tubes can also comprise non-carboncompounds, such as boron-nitride or molybdenum disulfide.

In one implementation of block 2004, the platform 500 provides chargednano-objects by ionizing them within a bath. Having the nano-objectscharged can aid in orienting with and/or collecting them in the troughs2102, discussed below.

FIG. 22 sets forth a three-dimensional view of an example of thesuperlattice 100 with a corrugated example of the working surface 202having the troughs 2102, the ridges 2104, and being in electricalconnection via the connection surface 402 and the conductive connectionmaterial 704 with the electrical power sink 702.

FIG. 22 also sets forth a bath 2200, having charged examples ofnano-objects 2202, and the electrical power source 1804.

At block 2006, the platform 500 exposes the corrugated surface to thenano-objects.

In one implementation, the platform 500 exposes the working surface 202(and thus the troughs 2102 and the ridges 2104) of the superlattice 100to the charged nano-objects 2202 by placing the working surface 202within the bath 2200 containing the charged nano-objects 2202.

At block 2008, the platform orients with and/or collects nano-objects inthe troughs 2102 of the working surface 202.

In an example of the above implementation, the platform 500 exposes theworking surface 202 to the charged nano-objects 2202 and charges thetroughs 2102 at the working surface 202 to attract the chargednano-objects 2202. Over a period of time, collection of the chargednano-objects 2202 can build an array of the nano-objects 2202.

In a related implementation of blocks 2004, 2006, and 2008, the platform500 provides the charged nano-objects 2202 by ionizing them within thebath 2200, exposes the working surface 202 of the superlattice 100 byplacing it within the bath 2200, and then collects the chargednano-objects 2202 in the troughs 2102 of the working surface 202 tocreate an array.

In greater detail, this implementation, with regard to block 2008,electrophoretically collects the charged nano-objects 2202 to build anarray by attracting ions of nano-objects to conductive offsetedges/troughs of a corrugated surface. To do so, the platform 500 cancreate an electrical potential at the troughs 2102 relative to thecharged nano-objects 2202. This can be accomplished in various ways,including by putting the troughs 2102 in electrical communication withthe electrical power sink 702. In the embodiment set forth above anddescribed in part in FIG. 22, the electrical connection surface 402 isput in electrical communication with the electrical power sink 702. Inthis example, the communication is established between the electricalconnection surface 402 and the working surface 202, by the troughs 2102being conductive (through the first material layers 102 beingconductive). If the second material layers 104 are also conductive, theyare not substantially conductive at the working surface 202 or at theexposed parts of the ridges 2104, so that the charged nano-objects 2202are collected in and/or oriented with the troughs 2102. The ridges 2104can be made non-conductive in the various ways set forth above. Also inthis example, the bath 2200 is connected to the electrical power source1804 to keep and/or cause the nano-objects 2202 to remain charged.

In another implementation of blocks 2004, 2006, and 2008, the platform500 provides the charged nano-objects 2202 by charging a solutioncontaining nano-objects and interfering ions. The interfering ions arespatially distributed to the troughs 2102. These interfering ions canrestrict a size of a spatial region within which an electric field isnon-zero near the troughs 2102. The size of the spatial region withinwhich the electric field is non-zero can be calculated by its Debyelength, which is:$L_{D} = \sqrt{\frac{ɛ_{0}ɛ_{el}{kT}}{{q}^{2}{\sum{n_{i}z_{i}^{2}}}}}$Here ε=8.85·10⁻¹² F/m is the permittivity of free space, ε_(el) is therelative permittivity of the liquid solvent without ions, |q|=1.6·10⁻¹⁹C is the elementary charge, k=1.38·10⁻²³ J/K is the Boltzmann constant,T is the absolute temperature (room temperature is about T=298 K), andn_(i) is the equilibrium volume concentration of ions with valencez_(i). Thus, the Debye length is a function of pH of the solution, ionicstrength, and ionic charge. As an example, in case of mono-valenceacidic solution with pH=5.5 the Debye length, L_(D), is about 200nanometers. The platform 500 can control pH to restrict the size of thespatial region within which the electric field is non-zero.

The nano-objects that contact the restricted spatial region within whichthe electric field is non-zero are then polarized if the nano-objectsare at least partially conductive. Once polarized, the nano-objects canbe attracted to and collected in and/or oriented with the troughs 2102.This way to restrict the size of the electric field can reduce a numberof partially collected and oriented nano-objects. It can also increasehow many of the nano-objects (such as the charged nano-objects 2202) arecollected within the troughs 2102.

Also, a small alternating current signal may be applied to the bathwhenever the nano-objects are charged or polarized. This small signalcreates an additional, oscillating force on the charged nano-objects2202 (such as the polarized nano-objects near the troughs 2102). Thisoscillating force can enable the nano-objects that are near, but notfully collected within the troughs 2102, to settle into the troughs2102. Certain of the polarized nano-objects, for instance, may bepartially outside of the troughs 2102, may be lying partly on the ridges2104, or the like. These states are only meta-stable; the oscillatingforce can enable these certain nano-objects to settle into a more stableposition within the troughs 2102.

As part of the block 2004 and/or 2008, the bath 2200 can be created ormaintained to optimize the behavior of the nano-objects 2202. Thebehavior of the nano-objects 2202 can be optimized by adjusting thetemperature, geometry of the bath, flow, ionic strength, and pH of thebath 2200.

An ionic strength and pH of the bath 2200 affects the ionization of thenano-objects 2202 in a water solvent. Thus, a lower pH is more acidic,and can cause certain types of nano-objects 2202 to be correspondinglycharged. A pH of the bath 2200 can be between zero and fourteen, such asbetween three and ten.

The temperature of the bath 2200 can be adjusted, based on the type ofsolute (e.g., the nano-objects 2202) and solvent within the bath 2200.For a solution of water and nano-objects of carbon polymer nano-tubecomplexes, for instance, a temperature of fifteen to thirty degreesCelsius can be used. For a solution having a solvent of alcohols ormolten salts, however, temperatures from about minus forty degreesCelsius to about 150 degrees Celsius can be used.

The geometry (and corresponding flow) of the bath 2200 can be adjustedto aid in orienting the long dimension (the length) of the nano-objects2202 with the length dimension of the troughs 2102 and the ridges 2104of the working surface 202.

FIG. 23 shows a directed flow bath 2300, which is an example of the bath2200. The directed bath 2300 has a channel 2302 flowing in a direction2304. The channel 2302 has an approach region 2306, a collection region2308, and an exit region 2310. The superlattice 100 resides within abath platform 2312, thereby exposing the working surface 202 in thecollection region 2308. Above the working surface 202 is a shelf 2314that directs, in conjunction with the bath platform 2312, the flowwithin the channel 2302. This shelf 2314 and the directed bath 2300allow a flow having a particular width (along the thickness dimension),referenced with 2316. The shelf 2314 can include the electrical powersource 1804 near to the working surface 202 but separated by the flow ofsolution (not shown). The electrical power source 1804 can also beplaced within the solution and near to the working surface 202. Theworking surface 202 is shown in electrical communication with the powersink 702.

A distance between the shelf 2314 and the working surface 202 can affecthow easily the nano-objects 2202 are oriented and collected in thetroughs 2102. By limiting this distance (the height of the collectionregion 2308) the physical characteristics of the flow of the fluid inthe bath 2300 can orient the long, thin nano-objects 2202 parallel withthe direction 2304 of the flow in the channel 2302. This orienting canmake easier further orienting and collection of the nano-objects 2202 inor with the troughs 2102.

In one implementation of the directed bath 2300, the height of thechannel 2302 at the collection region 2308 (a distance between the shelf2314 and the working surface 202) is between about 0.1 to about onemillimeter. In another implementation, the distance in region 2308 isbetween about one micron to about ten centimeters.

The bath and shelf width 2316 can be adjusted based on the fluidcharacteristics of the directed bath 2300. If the width 2316 is too low,the nano-objects 2202 may not orient as easily with the troughs 2102,especially at the troughs 2102 residing far from a center of the workingsurface 202.

In one implementation of the directed bath 2300, the bath and shelfwidth 2316 is between one and 100 times the thickness of the workingsurface 202. FIG. 23 shows the width 2316 being slightly wider than theworking surface 202. In another implementation, the width 2316 is two tofive times wider than the thickness of the working surface 202.

A velocity or rate of flow (“flow rate”) of the solution (which containsthe nano-objects 2202) can also be adjusted to optimize orientation andcollection of the nano-objects 2202 with or in the troughs 2102 of theworking surface 202. The flow rate should be such that laminar flowoccurs in the collection region 2308 during orientation and collectionof the nano-objects.

In one implementation, the flow rate is adjusted to keep a Reynoldsnumber below thirty to prevent turbulent flow. The Reynolds number is adimensionless fluid parameter, roughly equal to a ratio of inertial andviscous forces in a fluid. When a Reynolds number is below thirty, afluid has no turbulent (only laminar) flow. When a Reynolds number isabove thirty, a fluid has some turbulent flow. The Reynolds number(“Re”) can be determined by finding the characteristic dimension of thechannel 2302 (here at the collection region 2308), called “D”, thevelocity of the solution at the collection region 2308, called “V”, thedensity of the solution, called “ρ”, and the viscosity of the solution,called “η”. Specifically, ${Re} = {\frac{V \cdot D \cdot \rho}{\eta}.}$

With this information Re is determinable. D is determinable, primarilybased on the distance between the working surface 202 and the shelf2314. The velocity, V, is adjustable and determinable in manners wellknown in the art of fluid mechanics. The density of solution and itsviscosity can also be adjusted, including by using known additives.

In laminar flow, the fluid velocity profile is not uniform across thechannel 2302. Instead, the velocity of the solution is lower near walls(such as the floor of the collection region 2308) and higher in thecenter. Because of this, a long, thin nano-object in the solutionexperiences a stronger drag on its end closer to the center of thechannel 2302 than the collection region 2308, causing the nano-object toalign along the direction 2304 of the flow path. When the troughs 2102and the ridges 2104 of the working surface 202 are aligned with thedirection 2304 of the flow path, the nano-objects align (e.g., orient)with the troughs 2102 and the ridges 2104. To further aid in thisalignment, trenches running parallel to the troughs 2102 and the ridges2104 can be added to the approach region 2306 and the collection region2308.

As part of the block 2002, 2004, and/or 2008, the voltagedifference/potential of the bath 2200 (or the directed bath 2300) can beadjusted through the power sink 702 and the electrical power source 1804to affect the behavior of the nano-objects 2202. The voltage differenceused is dependent, on a decomposition potential of the solution. Thevoltage difference should not exceed this decomposition potential. Otherfactors include an affect on the nano-objects 2202; some materials andstructures of the nano-objects 2202 are more sensitive to voltagedifferences than others.

In one implementation, when using water as the solvent for the solutionin the bath 2200, the voltage difference is between about one and tenvolts.

In another implementation, the voltage difference between the power sink702 and the power source 1804 is between 0.001 and 100 volts, with thevoltage chosen based on the materials and structure of the nano-objects2202 and the solvent used in the bath 2200.

In this implementation of block 2008, the platform 500electrophoretically deposits nano-objects 2202 in the troughs 2102 ofthe first materials layers 102 at the working surface 202. As shownabove, the troughs 2102 that are conductive at the working surface 202will attract nano-objects 2202 if the troughs 2102 are at an appropriateelectrical potential compared to the nano-objects 2202. The platform 500continues to deposit nano-objects 2202 on the edges until an array ofthe nano-objects 2202 is created.

FIG. 24 shows an array 2402 of nano-objects 2404. The nano-objects 2404are oriented with and collected within the troughs 2102 of the exampleof the superlattice 100.

Specifically, FIG. 24 sets forth a three-dimensional view of an exampleof the superlattice 100 with examples of the working surface 202 havinga corrugated cross-section with the troughs 2102 and the ridges 2104,the electrical connection surface 402, the electrical power sink 702,and the nano-objects 2404.

At block 2010, the platform 500 removes un-oriented and/or uncollectednano-objects from the working surface 202, if needed. In someimplementations of block 2008, some of the nano-objects are not fullyoriented or collected within the troughs 2102 of the working surface202. In this case the platform 500 removes these un-arrayednano-objects.

In other cases, some of the nano-objects are un-oriented and/oruncollected and some of the troughs 2102 are not fully filled with thenano-objects. In these cases the platform 500 can remove the un-orientedand/or uncollected nano-objects and then return to block 2008 to collectand/or orient additional nano-objects.

FIG. 25 shows the array 2402 of the nano-objects 2404 and un-arrayednano-objects 2502. The un-arrayed nano-objects 2502 are not orientedwith and not fully collected within the troughs 2102 of the example ofthe superlattice 100.

In one implementation of block 2010, in cases where the nano-objects arelaminarly flowed along the troughs 2102, the platform 500 introducesturbulent flow outside of the troughs 2102 to remove the un-arrayednano-objects 2502 that are not collected within the troughs 2102.Turbulence in the flow introduces mixing, which facilitates removal ofnano-objects not within the troughs 2102. Turbulence can be introducedby adding gas bubbles into the flow. Turbulence can also be introducedby increased the fluid viscosity or the velocity of the fluid in theflow. Because turbulence is dependent on the geometry of the troughs2102, the flow can be made turbulent outside of the troughs 2102 but notin the troughs 2102.

In another implementation of block 2010, the platform 500 agitates theun-arrayed nano-objects 2502. The platform 500 can “shake off” theun-arrayed nano-objects 2502 using ultrasonic energy, for instance.

At block 2012, the platform 500 provides an array substrate. This arraysubstrate is used to hold the array 2402.

FIG. 26 sets forth examples of the superlattice 100, the working surface202, the array 2402, and the array substrate 1400 (also shown in FIG.14).

In one implementation, the array substrate 1400 includes an example ofthe high-adhesion layer 1402. This example of the high-adhesion layer1402 facilitates transfer of the nano-objects 2404 of the array 2402from the superlattice 100 to the array substrate 1400. The high-adhesionlayer 1402 acts with an adhesion force greater than the adhesion forcebetween the nano-objects 2404 and the troughs 2102.

At block 2014, the platform 500 places the corrugated surface (here theworking surface 202 with the troughs 2102 and the ridges 2104) near onin contact with the array substrate 1400.

FIG. 26 shows the array substrate 1400 and the superlattice 100 prior tobeing placed near or in physical contact.

In one implementation, the platform 500 touches the array 2402 to thearray substrate 1400. The array substrate 1400 can include thehigh-adhesion layer 1402 or otherwise.

In another implementation, the platform 500 places the array substrate1400 near to the troughs 2102 but not in contact with the troughs 2102.In this implementation, the platform 500 transfers the array 2402 fromthe troughs 2102 to the array substrate 1400 by creating a voltagedifference between the array 2402 and the array substrate 1400. This canbe performed by creating a voltage difference between the sink 702 andthe array substrate 1400 (such as through an electrical power source incommunication with the array substrate 1400, not shown).

In still another implementation, the platform 500 places the arraysubstrate 1400 near to the troughs 2102. In this implementation, theplatform 500 transfers the array 2402 (or parts of the array 2402) fromthe troughs 2102 to the array substrate 1400 using corona discharge.Corona discharge is known in the art of laser printing for transferringtoner particles onto paper.

In this implementation (using corona discharge), a dielectric surfacecarrying a uniform electric charge (charged by a corona discharge) isplaced some distance from the working surface 202. An insulatingsubstrate (such as an insulating example of the array substrate 1400) isbetween the working surface 202 and the dielectric surface. When thedielectric surface and the working surface 202 are sufficiently close toeach other (though separated by the array substrate 1400), electrostaticpull on the array 2402 caused by the charge on the dielectric surfacepulls the array 2402 to the substrate 1400. The dielectric surface canbe made smaller than the working surface 202 and the array 2402. In thiscase parts of the array 2402 can be pulled to the substrate 1400. Thisallows for creation of arrays of nano-objects smaller than and/or withvarious physical shapes not present in the array 2402.

In each of these implementations of block 2014, the platform 500transfers the array 2402 (or parts thereof) to the array substrate 1400.

At block 2016 the platform 500 removes the corrugated surface to leavethe array 2402 of the nano-objects 2404 on the array substrate 1400. Inthe ongoing example, the platform 500 removes (or moves away) theworking surface 202 from the array substrate 1400, thereby leaving thearray 2402 on the array substrate 1400.

FIG. 27 sets forth an example of the array substrate 1400 and the array2402 after the nano-objects 2404 are transferred.

The platform 500 can repeat the above blocks 2012, 2014, and 2016 tocreate a new array that includes the array 2402 and another array. Theplatform 500 can apply, for instance, a second array of nano-objects ornano-wires to the array 2402 on the array substrate 1400.

This second array can be created using the processes 600, 1600, 2000, orotherwise.

The platform 500 can apply the second array to the array 2402 in variousways to create the new array. The platform 500 can, for instance, applythe second array next to the array 2402, thereby creating a new arraythat is twice as wide or long as the array 2402. By applying additionalarrays, a larger array that is a mosaic of these additional arrays canbe created.

In another implementation, the platform 500 can apply the second arrayto the array 2402 substantially perpendicular to the array 2402. By sodoing, the platform 500 can create a cross-hatch of the array 2402 andthe second array.

FIG. 28 sets forth an example of the array substrate 1400, the array2402, a second array 2802, and the cross-hatch array 2804. Thisimplementation shows application of the second array 2802 on the array2402. The array 2402 and the second array 2802 can include similar orcompletely different materials. For instance, the second array 2802 canbe an array of nano-wires made of nickel, while the array 2402 can be anarray of carbon polymer nano-tube complexes. This flexibility increation of the resultant array (whether the shown cross-hatch array2804 or another array) allows for many varied and useful arrays.

Thus, using the process 2000, the platform 500 can create arrays ofnano-objects. The resultant array (here the array 2402), can includesubstantially parallel rows of the nano-objects 2404. Based on the manydifferent types of materials and particles that can be included in thenano-objects 2404, the array 2402 can be made of rows of polymernano-tubes, metal wires, semi-conductors, and other materials. In thecase of nano-tubes, the array 2402, or an array including the array 2402and the second array 2802, can have a length that is nanometer tocentimeter in scale and a thickness and depth that is nanometer tomeso-meter in scale.

Although the invention is described in language specific to structuralfeatures and methodological steps, it is to be understood that theinvention defined in the appended claims is not necessarily limited tothe specific features or steps described. Rather, the specific featuresand steps disclosed represent preferred forms of implementing theclaimed invention.

1. A method for fabricating an array of nano-objects comprising:providing nano-objects having a length and a thickness, the length beingsignificantly larger than the thickness; providing a superlattice havinga working surface and alternating layers of a conductive material andone or more other materials, the working surface comprising exposededges of the alternating layers, the exposed edges of the conductivematerial layers being offset from the exposed edges of one or more ofthe one or more other material layers and having a length and athickness, the length being significantly larger than the thickness;exposing the nano-objects to the working surface; and orienting, with anelectrical field, the lengths of the nano-objects with the lengths ofthe offset, exposed edges of the conductive material layers.
 2. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the nano-objects include polymer nano-tubecomplexes.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the nano-objects includeinorganic or organic molecules; biological molecules; metal,semiconductor, or insulating nano-particles; metal or semiconductornanowires; metal or semiconductor nano-needles; or metal, dielectric, orsemiconductor nano-tubes.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the offset,exposed edges of the conductive material layers form troughs in theworking surface.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the orienting isperformed electrophoretically.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein theorienting is performed electrostatically.
 7. The method of claim 1,wherein the orienting is performed electrochemically.
 8. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the offset, exposed edges of the conductive materiallayers form troughs in the working surface and the orienting isperformed electro-phoretically such that many of the troughs contain oneor more of the nano-objects.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein theoffset, exposed edges of the conductive material layers form troughs inthe working surface; the orienting is performed electro-phoreticallysuch that many of the troughs partially contain one or more of thenano-objects; and the orienting includes applying an alternating currentto oscillate the partially contained nano-objects to aid insubstantially collecting the nano-objects within the troughs.
 10. Themethod of claim 1, further comprising: charging the nano-objects in abath; and charging the offset, exposed edges of the conductive materiallayers, wherein the exposing the nano-objects to the working surfaceincludes placing the working surface within the charged bath.
 11. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the orienting includes laminarly flowing thenano-objects along the offset, exposed edges of the conductive materiallayers.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the orienting includes:collecting the nano-objects at the offset, exposed edges of theconductive material layers in part by laminarly flowing the nano-objectsalong the length of the offset, exposed edges of the conductive materiallayers but leaving some of the nano-objects uncollected; and introducingturbulent flow outside of the offset, exposed edges of the conductivematerial layers to remove the uncollected nano-objects.
 13. The methodof claim 1, wherein the offset, exposed edges of the conductive materiallayers form troughs in the working surface and the orienting includessettling the nano-objects substantially within the troughs by agitatingthe nano-objects.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the orientingincludes: charging the offset, exposed edges of the conductive materiallayers and a solution containing the nano-objects and ions to spatiallydistribute some of the ions near the offset, exposed edges of theconductive material layers, wherein the spatial distribution restricts aspatial region within which the electric field is non-zero near theoffset, exposed edges of the conductive material layers; exposing thenano-objects to the restricted spatial region within which the electricfield is non-zero near the offset, exposed edges of the conductivematerial layers to polarize the exposed nano-objects; and collecting,electrophoretically, the polarized nano-objects on the offset, exposededges of the conductive material layers.
 15. The method of claim 1,further comprising: removing substantially all of the nano-objects thatare not oriented with the offset, exposed edges of the conductivematerial layers.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or moreother materials is conductive.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein theoffset, exposed edges of the conductive material layers form troughs orfurrows in the working surface.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein theworking surface has a sine-wave, saw-tooth, or stepped-squarecross-section across the lengths of the offset, exposed edges of theconductive material layers.
 19. A robotic platform configured to performactions comprising: providing nano-objects having a length and athickness, the length being significantly larger than the thickness;providing a superlattice having a working surface and alternating layersof a conductive material and one or more other materials, the workingsurface comprising exposed edges of the alternating layers, the exposededges of the conductive material layers being offset from the exposededges of one or more of the one or more other material layers and havinga length and a thickness, the length being significantly larger than thethickness; exposing the nano-objects to the working surface; andorienting the lengths of the nano-objects with the lengths of theoffset, exposed edges of the conductive material layers.
 20. The actionsof claim 19, wherein the nano-objects include inorganic or organicmolecules; biological molecules; metal, semiconductor, or insulatingnano-particles; metal or semiconductor nanowires; metal or semiconductornano-needles; or metal, dielectric, or semiconductor nano-tubes.
 21. Theactions of claim 19, wherein the offset, exposed edges of the conductivematerial layers form troughs in the working surface.
 22. The actions ofclaim 19, wherein the orienting is performed electrophoretically. 23.The actions of claim 19, further comprising: charging the nano-objectsin a charged bath; and charging the offset, exposed edges of theconductive material layers, wherein the exposing the nano-objects to theworking surface includes placing the working surface within the chargedbath.
 24. The actions of claim 19, wherein the orienting includeslaminarly flowing the nano-objects along the offset, exposed edges ofthe conductive material layers.
 25. A method for fabricating an array ofnano-objects comprising: providing a superlattice having a workingsurface and alternating layers of a conductive material and one or moreother materials, the working surface comprising exposed edges of thealternating layers, the exposed edges of the conductive material layersbeing offset to form troughs relative to the exposed edges of one ormore of the one or more other material layers and having a length and athickness, the length being significantly larger than the thickness andthe thickness being between 0.7 and one hundred nanometers; chargingnano-objects in a liquid bath, the charged nano-objects having a lengthand a thickness, the length being significantly larger than thethickness, the thickness of the charged nano-objects being less than thethickness of the exposed edges of the conductive material layers;placing the working surface in the bath; charging the offset, exposededges of the conductive material layers to create a voltage differencebetween the offset, exposed edges of the conductive material layers andthe charged nano-objects; and collecting the charged nano-objects in thetroughs to create an array of the nano-objects.
 26. The method of claim25, wherein the bath has a temperature of fifteen to thirty degreesCelsius.
 27. The method of claim 25, wherein the liquid flows over theworking surface.
 28. The method of claim 25, wherein the liquidlaminarly flows over the working surface.
 29. The method of claim 25,wherein the pH of the bath is between four and nine.
 30. The method ofclaim 25, wherein the voltage difference is between one and ten volts.31. The method of claim 25, wherein the lengths of each of many of thecollected, charged nano-objects is substantially oriented along thelength of the offset, exposed edges of the conductive material layers.32. The method of claim 25, wherein the collecting further includes:laminarly flowing the charged nano-objects along the length of theoffset, exposed edges of the conductive material layers.
 33. The methodof claim 25, wherein the collecting further includes: laminarly flowingthe charged nano-objects along the length of the troughs but leavingsome of the nano-objects uncollected; and introducing turbulent flowoutside of the troughs to remove the uncollected nano-objects.
 34. Themethod of claim 25, wherein the collecting further includes: laminarlyflowing the charged nano-objects along the length of the troughs butleaving some of the nano-objects uncollected; and introducing gasbubbles into the laminar flow to create turbulence in the flow outsideof the troughs to remove the uncollected nano-objects.
 35. The method ofclaim 25, wherein the collecting further includes: settling the chargednano-objects into the troughs by agitating the charged nano-objects. 36.The method of claim 25, wherein the collecting further includes applyinga small alternating current to oscillate the charged nano-objects to aidin collecting the charged nano-objects within the troughs.
 37. Themethod of claim 25, wherein the charging the nano-objects in the bathincludes charging ions in the bath to spatially distribute some of theions near the offset, exposed edges of the conductive material layers,wherein the spatial distribution restricts a spatial region within whichan electric field is non-zero near the troughs.
 38. The method of claim25, further comprising: removing substantially all of the nano-objectsthat are not collected with the troughs.
 39. The method of claim 25,wherein the charged nano-objects include polymer nano-tubes complexes.40. The method of claim 25, wherein the charged nano-objects includeionized inorganic molecules, ionized organic molecules, ionizedbiological molecules, ionized polymers, charged metal particles,semiconductor particles, insulating nanoparticles, metal nanowires,metal nano-needles, semiconductor nanowires, or semiconductornano-needles.
 41. The method of claim 25, further comprising: contactingthe array and the working surface to a substrate; and separating theworking surface from the substrate to release the array from the workingsurface.
 42. The method of claim 25, further comprising: contacting thearray and the working surface to a high-adhesion layer of a substrate;and separating the working surface from the substrate to release thearray from the working surface.
 43. The method of claim 25, furthercomprising: providing a substrate having a second array of nano-objects;contacting the first array and the working surface to the substratesubstantially perpendicular to the second array; and separating theworking surface from the substrate to release the first array from theworking surface to create a cross-hatch of the first array and thesecond array.
 44. The method of claim 25, further comprising: providinga substrate having a second array of nano-objects; contacting the firstarray and the working surface to the substrate parallel to the secondarray; and separating the working surface from the substrate to releasethe first array from the working surface.
 45. The method of claim 25,further comprising: placing a substrate near to the working surface ofthe superlattice; and transferring the array of the nano-objects fromthe working surface to the substrate by creating a voltage differencebetween the array of the nano-objects and the substrate.
 46. The methodof claim 25, further comprising: placing a substrate near to the workingsurface of the superlattice; charging a dielectric plate with a coronadischarge; and placing the charged, dielectric plate near the substrateto transfers a part of the array of the nano-objects from the workingsurface to the substrate.
 47. A method for fabricating an array ofnano-objects comprising: charging nano-objects; charging, relative tothe charged nano-objects, troughs of a corrugated surface of asuperlattice, the corrugated surface having ridges being substantiallyuncharged relative to the nano-objects; exposing the surface to thecharged nano-objects to create, within the troughs, an array of thecharged nano-objects.
 48. The method of claim 47, wherein the chargednano-objects are ions within a bath and the exposing includes placingthe surface within the bath.
 49. The method of claim 47, wherein thetroughs have a thickness between 0.7 and one hundred nanometers.
 50. Themethod of claim 47, wherein the exposing the surface includes flowingthe charged nano-objects over the troughs.
 51. The method of claim 47,wherein the exposing the surface includes laminarly flowing the chargednano-objects along the troughs, and further comprising: introducingturbulent flow outside of the troughs to remove the charged nano-objectsthat are not within the troughs.
 52. The method of claim 47, furthercomprising; settling some of the charged nano-objects that are notwithin the troughs into the troughs by agitating the chargednano-objects.
 53. An apparatus comprising: means for chargingnano-objects; means for charging, relative to the charged nano-objects,troughs of a corrugated surface, the corrugated surface having ridgesbeing substantially uncharged relative to the nano-objects; means forexposing the surface to the charged nano-objects to collect, within thetroughs, an array of the charged nano-objects.
 54. The apparatus ofclaim 53, wherein the means for exposing is a flow of the chargednano-objects along the troughs.
 55. The apparatus of claim 53, whereinthe means for exposing is a flow of the charged nano-objects along thetroughs and further comprising: means to introduce turbulent flowoutside of the troughs to remove substantially all of the chargednano-objects that are not collected within the troughs.
 56. Theapparatus of claim 53, further comprising: means for settling thecharged nano-objects that are partially collected within the troughs tosubstantially within the troughs by agitating the partially collected,charged nano-objects.
 57. The apparatus of claim 53, further comprising:means for contacting the array and the corrugated surface to asubstrate; and means for separating the corrugated surface from thesubstrate to release the array from the corrugated surface.
 58. Theapparatus of claim 53, further comprising: means for providing asubstrate having a second array of nano-objects; means for contactingthe first array and the corrugated surface to the substratesubstantially perpendicular to the second array; and means forseparating the corrugated surface from the substrate to release thefirst array from the corrugated surface to create a cross-hatch of thefirst array and the second array.
 59. The apparatus of claim 53, furthercomprising: means for providing a substrate having a second array ofnano-objects; means for contacting the first array and the corrugatedsurface to the substrate parallel to the second array; and means forseparating the corrugated surface from the substrate to release thefirst array from the corrugated surface.
 60. The apparatus of claim 53,further comprising: means for placing a substrate near the troughs ofthe corrugated surface; and means for transferring the array from thetroughs to the substrate by creating a voltage difference between thearray and the substrate.
 61. A method for fabricating an array ofnano-objects comprising: providing nano-objects having a length and athickness, the length being substantially larger than the thickness;providing a corrugated surface of a superlattice having troughs andridges, the troughs having a length and a thickness, the length beingsignificantly larger than the thickness; and orienting the lengths ofthe nano-objects with the lengths of the troughs of the corrugatedsurface.
 62. The method of claim 61, wherein the orienting includeslaminarly flowing the nano-objects along the length of the troughs. 63.The method of claim 61, wherein the orienting includes: collecting thenano-objects in the troughs in part by laminarly flowing thenano-objects along the length of the troughs; and introducing turbulentflow outside of the troughs to remove those of the nano-objects that arenot collected in the troughs.
 64. The method of claim 61, wherein theorienting includes: collecting the nano-objects in the troughs in partby laminarly flowing the nano-objects along the length of the troughs;and introducing gas bubbles into the laminar flow to create turbulencein the flow outside of the troughs to remove those of the nano-objectsthat are not collected in the troughs.
 65. The method of claim 61,wherein the orienting includes laminarly flowing the nano-objectsthrough a structure having an interior surface, the interior surfaceincluding the corrugated surface with the length of the troughs of thecorrugated surface substantially aligned with the laminar flow of thenano-objects.
 66. The method of claim 61, wherein the orienting includessettling the nano-objects substantially within the troughs by agitatingthe nano-objects.
 67. The method of claim 61, wherein the orientingincludes settling the nano-objects substantially within the troughs byagitating the nano-objects with ultrasonic energy.
 68. The method ofclaim 61, wherein the orienting includes charging the troughs and thenano-objects to electrophoretically attract the charged nano-objects tothe charged troughs.
 69. The method of claim 61, wherein the orientingincludes: charging the troughs and the nano-objects toelectrophoretically attract the charged nano-objects to the chargedtroughs; and applying a small alternating current to oscillate thenano-objects to aid in collecting the nano-objects within the troughs.70. The method of claim 61, wherein the orienting includes: charging thetroughs and a solution containing the nano-objects and ions to spatiallydistribute some of the ions near the troughs to restrict a spatialregion within which an electric field is non-zero near the troughs;exposing the nano-objects to the restricted spatial region within whichthe electric field is non-zero near the troughs to polarize the exposednano-objects; and collecting, electrophoretically, the polarizednano-objects in the troughs.
 71. The method of claim 61, wherein theorienting includes: charging the troughs and a solution containing thenano-objects and ions to spatially distribute some of the ions near thetroughs to restrict a spatial region within which an electric field isnon-zero near the troughs; exposing the nano-objects to the restrictedspatial region within which the electric field is non-zero near thetroughs to polarize the exposed nano-objects; accumulating,electrophoretically, the polarized nano-objects very near or at thetroughs; and settling substantially within the troughs the accumulatednano-objects by applying a small alternating current to oscillate theaccumulated nano-objects.
 72. The method of claim 61, wherein theorienting leaves some of the nano-objects un-oriented and furthercomprising removing the un-oriented nano-objects.
 73. The method ofclaim 61, wherein the orienting leaves some of the nano-objectsun-oriented and further comprising removing the un-oriented nano-objectsby agitating the un-oriented nano-objects with ultrasonic energy. 74.The method of claim 61, wherein the orienting includes collecting thenano-objects substantially within the troughs.
 75. The method of claim61, wherein nano-objects include inorganic or organic molecules;biological molecules; metal, semiconductor, or insulatingnano-particles; metal or semiconductor nanowires; metal or semiconductornano-needles; or metal, dielectric, or semiconductor nano-tubes.